Does scientific discovery “by chance” (Serendipity) really exist, many examples of which are reported in history of science handbooks? The course is designed to improve the student’s awareness of exemplar cases of scientific discoveries and technical inventions (from X-rays to radioactivity, from penicillin to Velcro), that usually are explained as the result of an unexpected observation or of the recognition of an “anomaly” (according to a Thomas Kuhn’s definition). Secondly, we intend to develop a general epistemological reflection on logic and psychology of scientific research. 

The course is designed to improve the student’s awareness of how scientific discovery “by chance” represents a punctum dolens for neo-positivist epistemologists, who are above all in search of “the logic” of discovery, in the “justification context”. Theirs successors, instead, deny that scientific discovery can be completely explained by rationality. They emphasize the relevant role of the historical context and even of not always rational dynamics of explanation. Indeed, many studies on heuristic and psychology of research point out that this is often fruit of productive thinking, of the divergent one, and of intuition, that are involved also in mathematical discovery, and not only of the logical and rational components (Polya, Wertheimer). 

Finally, the course is designed to improve the student’s awareness of the fact that a meaningful contribution to the debate can be given by darwinian evolutionistic theories, that underscore the relevant role of chance in biological explanation. What can we learn by the evolutionistic perspective on discovery and human intelligence? In fact, these are within the bounds of lows of conservation of the species and of the natural selection, on the one hand, but also fruit of the individual creativity, on the other. 

The reading of the proposed texts and a critical analysis of theoretical concepts will help students appreciate epistemological debate on discovery and, above all, on topics such as logic and heuristic of scientific research, evolutionism. Knowing theoretical and philosophical concepts which are at the basis of modern scientific theories is essential if a student’s curriculum is to be complete. 

The following topics will be studied: 

There are no pre-requisites for this course.

Knowledge and understanding:

After the course, the student is expected to have acquired basic knowledge of the historical and epistemological debate on the conceptual foundations of modern science (theories, questions, methods, scientific instruments). The student is expected to understand elementary and basic philosophical and scientific texts, to face the main classic historical and epistemological questions, to use bibliographies and information systems tools, to know some aspects that will be informed by knowledge of the forefront of his field of study.

Applying knowledge and understanding:

The student is expected to understand and apply his knowledge, to use his problem solving abilities in new or unfamiliar environments within broader (or multidisciplinary) contexts related to his field of study, particularly to face the philosophical questions presents in the history of science. The student is expected to understand the concepts and the theories put forward during the lectures, to be able to put them to use in his own research. The student is expected to be able to demonstrate he has acquired the numerous historical and epistemological interrelations between scientific theories and philosophical conceptions. The student is expected to be able to use appropriately historical and epistemological terms, in teaching or within a research context, and to have acquired the skills necessary to argue effectively.

Making judgements:

The student is expected to have the ability to gather and interpret relevant data (within his field of study) to inform judgements that include reflection on relevant social and scientific issues. The student is expected to be able to demonstrate he has acquired the skills necessary to analyse the texts proposed critically and to elaborate on them personally, making personal judgements. The student is expected to have acquired a correct methodological awareness and to be able to recognize autonomously the main interpretative schools of thought behind history of science.

Communication skills:

The student is expected to be able to demonstrate he has acquired the skills necessary to communicate his conclusions clearly and unambiguously, to specialist and non-specialist audiences, particularly on the main historical, scientific and epistemological debates. The student is expected to communicate on the concepts and the theories put forward during the lectures.

Learning skills:

The student is expected to be able to demonstrate he has acquired awareness of the complexity of the historical and epistemological events, so to study them autonomously. The student is expected to have developed the learning skills to allow him to continue to study in a manner that may be largely self-directed or autonomous.

The teaching material prepared by the lecturer in addition to recommended textbooks (such as for instance slides, lecture notes, exercises, bibliography) and communications from the lecturer specific to the course can be found inside the Moodle platform › blended.uniurb.it

No activities are provided to support the teaching.

The teaching material and specific communication from the lecturer can be found, together with other supporting activities, inside the Moodle platform >blended.uniurb.it

Teaching

Frontal lectures, comments and, where appropriate, debates on questions which are of particular interest to the students, only if they are pertinent to the course.

Attendance

There are no specific attendance rules. The student is expected to have achieved the formative objectives in the course of his Triennial Degree.

Course books

In addition to the slides and other electronic teaching material eventually made available by the lecturer inside the Moodle platform, lectures will be on the following articles or parts of books: 

R. K. Merton, E. G. Barber, The Travels and Adventures of Serendipity. A Study in Historical Semantics and the Sociology of Science, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1992, Chapters 1, 3, 9. 

 W. Bynum, “Radioactivity”, in A Little History of Science, Yale University Press, New Heaven-London, 2012, pp. 189-195. 

 G. Farmelo, «The Discovery of X-Rays», Scientific American, 1995, 273, 5, pp. 68-73. 

 D. Kahneman, Thinking, Fast and Slow, Allen Lane, London, 2011, Introduction, Chapter I. 

 G. Polya, How to Solve It, Penguin Books, London, 1990, pp. 1-23, 33-36 (Part I (Sections 1-17); Part II). 

 E. Mayr, What Makes Biology Unique? Considerations on the Autonomy of a Scientific Discipline, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2004. 

Assessment

Oral exams, which enable the examiner to evaluate to what extent the formative objectives have been achieved by the students. The final mark will be determined by taking into account not only of the knowledge acquired by the student (theories, questions, methods, scientific instruments), but also of his skills in using conceptual and bibliographical tools, also in new or unfamiliar environments, of his ability to use specific terms, to interpret texts critically and to argue effectively. Active participation in the classroom will also contribute to the final evaluation. Autonomous judgements will be particularly well-appreciated.

All this criteria (in terms of knowledge and understanding, applying knowledge and understanding, making judgements, communication skills, learning skills) will have egual wheight in the assessment, and will be well distinguished on a scale of four levels (not sufficient, sufficient, good, excellent). A sufficiently clear exposition, using adeguatly specific terms, of the basic contents, concepts and methods will be sufficient to pass the examination. Definitely, the final mark will be expressed on a range from 18/30 to 30/30.

Disability and Specific Learning Disorders (SLD)

Students who have registered their disability certification or SLD certification with the Inclusion and Right to Study Office can request to use conceptual maps (for keywords) during exams.

To this end, it is necessary to send the maps, two weeks before the exam date, to the course instructor, who will verify their compliance with the university guidelines and may request modifications.

Teaching

Students that do not attend lectures will study on their own (individually or with others) according to the directions of this Vademecum and will be in contact with the lecturer by e-mail.

Attendance

A hard and careful study is required.

Course books

Students that do not attend lectures will follow this programme, in order to prepare to better for exams. In addition to the slides and other electronic teaching material eventually made available by the lecturer inside the Moodle platform, students will study the following articles or parts of books: 

 R. K. Merton, E. G. Barber, The Travels and Adventures of Serendipity. A Study in Historical Semantics and the Sociology of Science, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1992, Chapters 1, 3, 9.

 T. Kuhn, “The Historical Structure of Scientific Discovery”, Science, 1962, 136, pp. 760-764. 

 G. Farmelo, «The Discovery of X-Rays», Scientific American, 1995, 273, 5, pp. 68-73. 

 D. Kahneman, Thinking, Fast and Slow, London, Allen Lane, 2011, Introduction, Chapter I. 

 G. Polya, How to Solve It, Penguin Books, London, 1990, pp. 1-23, 33-36 (Part I (Sections 1-17); Part II). 

 E. Mayr, What Makes Biology Unique? Considerations on the Autonomy of a Scientific Discipline, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2004.

Assessment

Oral exams, which enable the examiner to evaluate to what extent the formative objectives have been achieved by the students. The final mark will be determined by taking into account not only of the knowledge acquired by the student (theories, questions, methods, scientific instruments), but also of his skills in using conceptual and bibliographical tools, also in new or unfamiliar environments, of his ability to use specific terms, to interpret texts critically and to argue effectively. Autonomous judgements will be particularly well-appreciated.

All this criteria (in terms of knowledge and understanding, applying knowledge and understanding, making judgements, communication skills, learning skills) will have egual wheight in the assessment, and will be well distinguished on a scale of four levels (not sufficient, sufficient, good, excellent). A sufficiently clear exposition, using adeguatly specific terms, of the basic contents, concepts and methods will be sufficient to pass the examination. Definitely, the final mark will be expressed on a range from 18/30 to 30/30.

Disability and Specific Learning Disorders (SLD)

Students who have registered their disability certification or SLD certification with the Inclusion and Right to Study Office can request to use conceptual maps (for keywords) during exams.

To this end, it is necessary to send the maps, two weeks before the exam date, to the course instructor, who will verify their compliance with the university guidelines and may request modifications.