The aim of the course will be learning of basic concepts of general physiology and of knowledge and of conceptual instruments for representation of human body functions, of their hormonal and nervous control and of main adaptations to exercise, to training and to some special environments. The student will have to be able to substain a discussion about general homeostatic problems, and to analyze the contribution of the functions and of their integration.

1. Basic concepts. 1.1. Definition of physiology and of its objects of study. 1.1.1. Definition of living object. 1.2. Information in biological systems. 1.2.1. Concept of message and of code. 1.2.2. Intercellular communication and its role in multicellular organisms. 1.3. Control systems. 1.3.1. Open and close chain control system. 1.3.2. Negative feed-back. Oscillatory behaviors. 1.3.3. Positive feed-back. All- or nothing-kind phenomena. 1.4. Mechanisms of signal amplification. 1.5. Concept of milieu intérieur and of homeostasis. 

2. Cell physiology. 2.1. Cell membrane: composition, architecture, fluidity. 2.2. Membrane transports: simple diffusion and diffusion by carrier; primary and secondary active transport. 2.3. Electrophysiology. Resting membrane potential. Passive membrane properties. Local potential propagation. Action potential. Action potential propagation in myelinated and non-myelinated fibers. Eccitability and refractoriness. 2.4 Intercellular communication: extracellular signals, kinds of receptors and  their mechanisms of action.

3. Muscle function. 3.1. molecular mechanism of muscle contraction. 3.1.1. Structure of muscle. Sarcomer: architecture; composition and structure of thin and thick filaments. Other proteins of sarcomer. 3.1.2. Mechanism of sliding. 3.1.3. Control of contraction: excitation-contraction coupling; role of Ca2+. 3.2. Morphofunctional classification of muscle fibers. 3.3. Mechanics of contraction. 3.3.1. Isometric and isotonic contraction. 3.3.2. Twitch and tetanus. 3.3.3 lenght-force relationshi. 3.3.4. force-velocity relationship. 3.4. Energetics of muscle work. 3.4.1. Work and power. 3.4.2. Heat production. 3.4.3. Energetic sources. 3.5. smooth muscle: structure; mechanism of contraction; control; innervation. 

4. Neurophysiology. 4.1. Neurobiology. 4.1.1. Neuron. Shape-function relationship. Excitability of neuron membrane. 4.1.2. Electric synapses. 4.1.3. Chemical synapses: presynaptic mechanism; ionotropic and metabotropic postsynaptic mechanism. Main neurotrasmitters and receptors. Excitatory and inhibitory synapses. 4.1.4. Axon hillock, information flux and functional polarization of neuron. Integrative function of neuron. 4.2. Perception. 4.2.1. Sensory stimulus. Peripheral and central phase of perception. Sensory receptors: reception and transduction. Coding of the key features of the stimulus: mode, intensity, spatial location, time definition. 4.2.2. Vision. The visual stimulus. Eye. Retina. Photoreceptors. Phototransduction. Visual pathways. Introduction to central processing of visual information. 4.2.3. Somatic sensibility. Touch. Nociception and its control. Thermoreception. Proprioception: muscle spindle, Golgi tendon organ. Cortical areas of somatic sensibility. 4.2.4. Vestibular system. 4.3. Motricity. 4.3.1. Motor neuron. Neuromuscular junction. Motor unit. Spinal motor nuclei. Control of contraction force: firing rate and recruitment. 4.3.2. Reflexes. 4.3.3. Descending motor pathways. 4.3.4. Motor cortex, cerebellum and basal ganglia.

5. Blood circulation. 5.1. Generalities and cardiovascular functional anatomy. 5.2. Blood. 5.2.1. Generalities and composition. Plasma. Red blood cells. Leukocytes. Platelets. 5.2.2. Hemopoiesis and its regulation. 5.2.3. Hemostasis and coagulation. 5.3. Heart. 5.3.1. Functional anatomy and histology of the heart. 5.3.2. Electrophysiology of specialized and working myocardial tissue. Automatism. Depolarization wave spread. Electrocardiogram. 5.3.3. Cardiac cycle: systole, diastole, function of valves, pressure, volume and blood flow. 5.4. Blood circulation. 5.4.1. General pattern of circulation. 5.4.2. Histo-functional features of the vessel wall. 5.4.3. Principles of hemodynamics. 5.4.4. Blood pressure and its regulation. 5.4.5. Microcirculation. Microcirculation structural features. Capillary endothelium types. Capillary exchange: diffusion; filtration; transcytosis. 5.4.6. Venous circulation. Venous compliance. Venous circulation dynamics. 5.4.7. Pulmonary circulation features. 5.5. Lymph, lymph system and lymph circulation. 5.6. Adaptations of cardiac function and circulation to physical activity and training. 5.6.1. Intrinsic adaptations of myocardial function to exercise. 5.6.2. Nervous and hormonal regulation of heart function during exercise. 5.6.3. Nervous and hormonal regulation of vasomotricity. 5.6.4. Regulation of circulation in muscles during exercise: mechanical distension; myogenic constriction; flow-dependent dilation; metabolic vasodilation.

6. Respiration. 6.1. Respiratory system functional anatomy. 6.2. Breathing mechanics. 6.3. Alveolar ventilation. Respiratory membrane. Gas exchange in the lungs and tissues. 6.4. Physiologic dead space. 6.5. Oxygen and carbon dioxide transport in blood. 6.6. Nervous and chemical control of breathing. 6.6.1. Genesis of the respiratory rhythm. 6.6.2. Aortic and carotid chemoceptors and peripheral mechanism. 6.6.3. Central mechanism. 6.7. pH regulation by breathing. 6.8. Breathing adaptations to physical activity and training.

7. Renal function. 7.1. Kidney functional anatomy. Nephron. 7.2. Renal circulation. 7.3. Glomerular filtration and its regulation. 7.4. Tubular reabsorption and secretion. 7.5. Water reabsorption and water balance regulation. 7.6. Acid-base regulation. 7.7. Ion homeostasis. 7.8. Hormonal regulation of tubular reabsorption and secretion. 7.9. The renin-angiotensin system. 7.10. Urinary tract. Urination.

8. Endocrine Physiology. 8.1. Chemical classes, metabolism, transport of hormones. 8.2. General endocrine organization. Neuro-endocrine relationships. Feedbacks and reciprocal control. Basal secretion and response to stimuli. 8.3. Endocrine glands and their hormones. Each hormone: functional anatomy of the endocrine gland; hormone chemical nature; functions; receptors and mechanism of action; regulation of secretion. 8.4. Adenohypophysis. 8.4.1. Hypothalamus-pituitary portal circulation and hypothalamic control of adenohypophysial function. 8.4.2. Adenohypophysis hormones: growth hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, prolactin, follicle stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone. 8.5. Neurohypophysis. 8.5.1. Hypothalamic production, transport and release of neurohypophyseal hormones. 8.5.2. Neurohypophyseal hormones: oxytocin, antidiuretic. 8.6. Thyroid. 8.6.1. Basal metabolism and regulation. 8.6.2. Thyroid hormone. 8.7. Control of serum calcium. 8.7.1. Values and importance of the control of serum calcium. 8.7.2. Parathyroid hormone. 8.7.3. Calcitonin. 8.7.4. Vitamin D. 8.8. Endocrine pancreas and glycemic control. 8.8.1. Values and importance of blood glucose control. 8.8.2. Insulin. 8.8.3. Glucagon. 10.8.4. Other hyperglycaemic hormones. 8.9. Control of hyponatremia, kalemia and blood volume. 8.9.1. Aldosterone. 8.9.2. Atrial natriuretic peptide. 8.10. Glucocorticoids. Hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis. 8.11. Hormones of the adrenal medulla. 8.12. Hormones of the male gonads. 8.13. Hormones of the female gonads. 8.13. Hormonal responses to stress and physical activity.

9. Reproduction. 9.1. Male reproductive system. 9.1.1. Functional anatomy. 9.1.2. Spermatogenetic function. Glands. 9.2. Female reproductive system. 9.2.1. Functional anatomy. 9.2.2. Ovogenetic function. 9.2.3. Ovarian cycle and uterine cycle. 9.3. Fertilization. 9.4. Pregnancy and birth. 9.5. Reproductive function in relation to age: puberty and menopause.

10. Short- and long-term adaptations to high altitude.

11. Metabolism and energy balance. Principles of regulation of body metabolism. Endocrine control of metabolism. Mechanisms of thermoregulation

Fisics/Chemistry and biochemical propedeutics, Human biology, Human anatomy, Biochemistry

In accordance with the Dublin Descriptors, at the end of the course and in order to pass the exam, the student must demonstrate that:
1. Have achieved a knowledge and an ability to understand physiology that allows him to set up the discussion of theoretical issues in a logical and complete way;
2. Knowing how to set up the treatment of applicative problems in the field of exercise physiology, using the knowledge of human physiology;
3. Knowing how to autonomously and motivatedly evaluate any different opinions on problematic aspects of human physiology;
4. Knowing how to express one's knowledge in scientific language and vocabulary;
5. Demonstrate having achieved a good learning ability, not only in the form of memorizing the information studied, but also in the form of organizing one's own thoughts around such information.

The teaching material prepared by the lecturer in addition to recommended textbooks (such as for instance slides, lecture notes, exercises, bibliography) and communications from the lecturer specific to the course can be found inside the Moodle platform › blended.uniurb.it

The teacher will be available for meetings with groups of students or individuals, in presence and/or by videoconference, to fill gaps in the initial preparation and to clarify doubts or curiosities that arose during the lessons. In the event of a negative outcome of the exam, the teacher will also be available to identify the points that can be improved in the approach to the study of the subject.

Teaching

Frontal lessons.

Innovative teaching methods

Attendance

The student must possess the knowledge of chemistry, physics, biology, biochemistry and human anatomy preparatory to the study of physiology. If the student finds deficiencies in his basic preparation that hinder the understanding of the topics covered, he will have to fill the deficiencies, reporting the problem to the teacher if he sees it useful. Attending students are required to acquire at least sufficient preparation on all the topics of the programme.

For the full achievement of the educational objectives of the course, attendance at lectures is strongly recommended, although not mandatory. Students are considered 'attending' students upon reaching at least 50% of the number of hours required by the course.

Course books

Recommended texts (one of the following):

R.M. Berne, M.N. Levy, B.M. Koeppen, B.A. Stanton, Physiology, Casa Editrice Ambrosiana, 2019.

B.C. Guyton, J.E. Hall, Medical physiology, EDRA, 2017.

W.F. Boron, E.L. Boulpaep, Medical physiology, EDRA, 2017.

  For more information on exercise physiology:

Wilmore-Costill, Exercise and Sport Physiology, Calzetti Mariucci

It is considered useful to clarify that there are no lecture notes authorized by the teacher. The use of notes cannot in any way replace the study of good texts. The study of one or more texts cannot replace attendance at the lessons, nor, on the other hand, does attendance at the lessons exempt from the systematic study of one or more texts.

Assessment

Oral interview. The acquisition of the specific vocabulary of the discipline, the notions acquired on the topics of the program, the ability to establish relationships between the different functions and between the themes of physiology and the knowledge of chemistry, physics, biological chemistry and human anatomy will be evaluated previously acquired, the ability to articulate a reasoning, in order to address problems of general physiology and exercise physiology in particular.

Students attending more than 50% of the lessons will be given the possibility of taking a partial exam before the end of the course. The methods will be communicated by the teacher during lesson hours.

Disability and Specific Learning Disorders (SLD)

Students who have registered their disability certification or SLD certification with the Inclusion and Right to Study Office can request to use conceptual maps (for keywords) during exams.

To this end, it is necessary to send the maps, two weeks before the exam date, to the course instructor, who will verify their compliance with the university guidelines and may request modifications.

Teaching

All the iconographic material relating to the lessons held will be made available on the blended learning platform moodle. Furthermore, summaries of the lessons will be published on the same platform which, obviously, must be considered as explanatory of the topics covered in the program and not a substitute for studying in textbooks.

Attendance

Non-attending students are required to acquire at least sufficient preparation on all the topics of the programme, possibly using additional textbooks which may be indicated by the teacher on the basis of individual needs.

For the full achievement of the educational objectives of the course, attendance at lectures is strongly recommended, although not mandatory. Students are considered 'attending' students upon reaching at least 50% of the number of hours required by the course

Course books

To give students and non-attending students the opportunity to compensate for what is done during lessons with independent study, the following materials referring to the same contents of the program are indicated in order to promote full understanding. Recommended texts (one of the following):

R.M. Berne, M.N. Levy, B.M. Koeppen, B.A. Stanton, Physiology, Casa Editrice Ambrosiana, 2019.

B.C. Guyton, J.E. Hall, Medical physiology, EDRA, 2017.

W.F. Boron, E.L. Boulpaep, Medical physiology, EDRA, 2017.

  For more information on exercise physiology:

Wilmore-Costill, Exercise and Sport Physiology, Calzetti Mariucci

It is considered useful to clarify that there are no lecture notes authorized by the teacher. The use of notes cannot in any way replace the study of good texts. The study of one or more texts cannot replace attendance at the lessons, nor, on the other hand, does attendance at the lessons exempt from the systematic study of one or more texts.

Assessment

Oral interview. The acquisition of the specific vocabulary of the discipline, the notions acquired on the topics of the program, the ability to establish relationships between the different functions and between the themes of physiology and the knowledge of chemistry, physics, biological chemistry and human anatomy will be evaluated previously acquired, the ability to articulate a reasoning, in order to address problems of general physiology and exercise physiology in particular.

Disability and Specific Learning Disorders (SLD)

Students who have registered their disability certification or SLD certification with the Inclusion and Right to Study Office can request to use conceptual maps (for keywords) during exams.

To this end, it is necessary to send the maps, two weeks before the exam date, to the course instructor, who will verify their compliance with the university guidelines and may request modifications.